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Essential oils are volatile, aromatic compounds and the pure essence of plant extracts. The plants go through a special distillation process in which the essential oil is separated from its plant part.
Essential oils as part of herbs and spices we encounter every day in everyday life: whether it's cinnamon on the morning porridge, a cup of peppermint tea in the afternoon or the basil on the spaghetti in the evening - we always also consume volatile essential oil compounds.
Many applications
Essential oils are also used very specifically in their concentrated form as food supplements and topically, i.e. applied to the skin. However, the most common form is inhalation, in which the oil is inhaled using steam.
Essential oils are often used when cooking or baking as a substitute for fresh or dried spices and herbs - for example for a particularly intense orange or lemon aroma in baked goods. However, it should be dosed very carefully, as the aroma is much more concentrated and therefore more intense than with conventional spices.
Adding essential oils to drinks such as tea, smoothies, water or milk is also becoming increasingly popular,
When essential oils are taken as part of the diet or concentrated as a dietary supplement, they enter the bloodstream via the gastrointestinal tract. Essential oils are fat-soluble, so they are easily transported to all organs in the body, including the brain. Then, like everything we consume, essential oils are metabolized by the liver and other organs and eventually excreted.
But the external, topical application of essential oils has also proven itself over many years. Such as adding a few drops of oil to a warm bath or as a hot or cold compress by soaking a towel in water, adding essential oils and then applying to the desired area. Adding essential oil to a lotion or moisturizer that is then applied to the skin is also a proven way to experience essential oil benefits. Of course, sensitive areas such as the skin around the eyes, eyes and inner ears as well as injured skin areas should be avoided.
The biochemistry behind essential oils: health effects and connections
But in addition to the emotional component, which anyone who has ever come into contact with high-quality essential oil can immediately relate to, there are also more and more scientific studies that deal with the health benefits of essential oils on a biochemical level. The nose, with its approximately 350 scent receptors, naturally plays a crucial role in the perception of scents. Biochemically, the messenger molecule cAMP plays an important role, converting the scent information triggered by the scent receptors in the olfactory sensory cells into an electrical impulse that is sent to the brain via the central nervous system. There are scent receptors not only in the nose, but in all body cells, e.g. in fatty tissue, but also in organs such as the lungs, heart or kidneys, where one does not usually suspect them. Outside of the nose, however, these scent receptors have nothing to do with “smelling” in the actual sense, so a designation such as “chemoreceptors” would probably be more appropriate. If a molecule activates one of these receptors, this can stimulate the cells to release messenger substances, to divide or to move.According to studies by Professor Klatt from the Ruhr University Bochum, these receptors also have an influence on cell death – which could open up exciting possibilities, for example, in the context of cancer therapies. There are between 5 and 80 different types of scent receptors per tissue. And there, these odorant receptors control a variety of different signaling pathways that can have very different effects at the cellular level: For example, a scent receptor for the scent of violets inhibits cell growth in the pigment cells of the skin, while it can promote cell growth in the retina. Likewise, the odorant receptor for sandalwood can accelerate hair growth and wound healing, while it can inhibit the proliferation of leukemia cells. Fragrances that activate these receptors are not only those that enter the body through the skin, food or breathing, but also those that are formed by microbes in the intestines, in the bronchi or on the skin. From this knowledge and the fact that only 50 of the 350 odorant receptors found in humans are currently known, completely new therapeutic approaches for the future can be derived. Professor Hanns Hatt from the Ruhr University Bochum explains: "The further decoding of olfactory receptors, which occur in large quantities in human tissues, as well as the decoding of their diverse effects and the associated activating substances will open up hitherto unimagined possibilities for pharmaceutical treatment." A use in cancer therapy also seems promising, since odorant receptors are often found in large quantities in cancer cells and their receptor types can differ from those of healthy cells. Therefore, odorant receptors could be used as tumor markers in diagnostics. But Professor Hatt also sees potential in therapy, especially in tumors such as colon or bladder cancer, which are easily accessible to fragrances from the outside. (Source: Lee, Sung-Joon; Depoortere, Inge; Hatt, Hanns. Nature Reviews Drug Discovery 18, 116-138 (2019)) Bergamot essential oil is used worldwide in aromatherapy to relieve pain, facilitate sleep induction and/or minimize the effects of stress-related anxiety. Preclinical pharmacological data show that bergamot essential oil (BEO) modulates specific neurotransmissions and exhibits relaxing, anti-anxiety effects. Several studies on essential oils indicate a role for serotonergic (5-HT) neurotransmission in anxiety. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32283606/ Preclinical studies have recently shown that bergamot essential oil is endowed with remarkable neurobiological effects. Thus, it can affect synaptic transmission and showed neuroprotective properties. Bergamot oil is also commonly used in aromatherapy to minimize the symptoms of stress-related anxiety and mild mood disorders. The following study tested endocrine, physiological and psychological effects of bergamot oil vapor inhalation in 41 healthy women in a randomized crossover study design. The volunteers were exposed to 3 experimental setups (rest (R), rest + water vapor (RW), rest + water vapor + bergamot essential oil (RWB)) for 15 minutes each. Immediately after each setup, saliva samples were taken and the cortisol level measured: RWB's cortisol levels were significantly lower compared to the R setup. The results of this study show that bergamot oil, together with water vapor, exerts psychological and physiological effects in a relatively short period of time. Source: https://pubmed.ncbinlm.nih.gov/25824404/ The following study evaluated the anxiolytic/sedative effects of bergamot oil in rats. Analysis of the data suggests that BEO induces anxiolytic/relaxation effects on animal behavioral tasks: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28398260/ Essential bergamot oil is also being used more and more frequently in dementia therapy. Because the cognitive disorder is a serious, but not the only problem in dementia: behavioral and psychological syndromes known as neuropsychiatric symptoms of dementia significantly reduce the quality of life. The cluster of symptoms includes anxiety, depression, wandering, delusions, hallucinations, misidentification, agitation, and aggression. Aromatherapy provides positive results in controlling restlessness as one of the key symptoms. People with dementia are often unable to verbally express pain, leading to unrelieved symptoms and contributing to restlessness. Bergamot essential oil provides extensive preclinical evidence for analgesic (i.e., pain-relieving) properties. Incidentally, the essential oil of bergamot induces the anti-anxiety effect typical of benzodiazepines without sedation. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31284573/ Mosquito-borne diseases such as malaria, yellow fever or dengue fever are the main causes of relevant morbidity and mortality in livestock and humans worldwide. There are several reports in the literature of side effects of synthetic insect repellents such as skin rash, hives or brain damage in children. Therefore, natural insect repellents such as essential oils have recently been explored as an alternative. One such essential oil that has been widely studied is citronella oil. This essential oil has shown good effectiveness against mosquitoes. It is a mixture of components including citronellal, citronellol, geraniol as the main ingredients that contribute to various activities (antimicrobial, antioxidant, antispasmodic and wound healing) in addition to the mosquito repellent effect. https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30019646/ Cineole occurs primarily in eucalyptus and laurel and is perceived by humans via the olfactory nerve, and in higher concentrations also via the trigeminal nerve - a cranial nerve that causes, for example, the burning and feeling of heat when eating chili and the feeling of cold when eating Menthol, which is also formed when in contact with cineol. By activating the trigeminal nerve, also known as the “warning nerve”, cineole makes you more alert and invigorated. Geraniol is mainly found in roses and geraniums. It has a calming, relaxing effect and makes us more relaxed. Biochemically, geraniol enhances the effect of the body's own messenger substance GABA, which, among other things, is crucial for initiating and maintaining sleep. Pharmaceutical tranquilizers such as benzodiazepines or barbiturates exert their effect in the same way by binding to the associated GABA receptor. Breast cancer is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Chemoresistance and toxicity are the main factors limiting treatment success in aggressive breast cancer cases. The following study examined the possible effects of frankincense, pine needle and geranium essential oils on breast cancer cell viability, proliferation, migration and invasion, and the possible mechanisms. MCF-7 breast cancer cells were treated with said essential oils and these essential oils were shown to suppress cell viability, proliferation, migration and invasion in human MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Further data showed that frankincense, pine needle and geranium essential oils induced apoptosis but did not affect cell cycle progression. Consistent with in vitro activities, frankincense essential oil was effective in inhibiting tumor growth and inducing apoptosis of Tumor cells in a human breast cancer mouse model. In addition, these 3 essential oils modulated the activity of the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that frankincense, pine needle, and geranium essential oils were implicated in BC cell progression possibly via the AMPK/mTOR pathway. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29115548/ COVID-19 has been declared the world's deadliest public health emergency in modern history. The angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, a host cell receptor, has been found to play a critical role in viral cell entry. Therefore, ACE2 blockers can be a potential target for antiviral intervention. The following study examined the ACE2 inhibitory effects of 10 essential oils. Among them, geranium and lemon oils showed significant ACE2 inhibitory effects in epithelial cells. In addition, immunoblotting and qPCR analyzes also confirmed that geranium and lemon oil have a strong ACE2 inhibitory effect. The results suggest that geranium and lemon essential oils and their derived compounds are valuable natural antiviral agents that can help prevent SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 from entering the human body. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32575476/ Acinetobacter species are among the so-called "hospital germs" and are organisms that can cause purulent infections in any organ system. Their resistance to some antibiotics and their ability to produce biofilms contribute to their virulence. The aim of the following study was to determine the antibacterial properties of cinnamon, lavender and geranium essential oils against bacteria of the genus Acinetobacter isolated from several clinical materials and from the hospital environment. Findings of the study: These three essential oils can best be used in combating infections caused by bacteria of the genus Acinetobacter as part of formulations for hygiene and disinfection of the hospital environment. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25514231/ Lavender and immortelle essential oils are commonly used to treat a number of human ailments. The aim of the following study was to investigate the cyto-/genotoxic effects of lavender and immortelle oil using plant cells (Allium cepa) and human lymphocytes as well as their antimicrobial potential using nine bacterial and fungal strains. The results confirm that lavender and immortelle essential oils exhibited cyto-/genotoxic effects in both plant and human cells, as well as antimicrobial properties. Further studies are needed to substantiate these findings. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30607990/ Essential oils distilled from members of the Lavandula genus have been used both cosmetically and therapeutically for centuries. Although there is considerable anecdotal information about the biological activity of these oils, much of this has not been backed up by scientific or clinical evidence for a long time. Claims for lavender oil include being antibacterial, antifungal, digestive (gentle muscle relaxant), calming, antidepressant, and effective for burns and insect bites. But now there is both scientific and clinical data to support the traditional use of lavender; Source: https://pubmedncbi.nlm.nih.gov/12112282/ Ex: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22517298/ This study suggests that inhalation of lavender essential oil is an effective and safe treatment modality in the acute management of migraine headaches can be. Aromatherapy is also a promising therapeutic alternative for relieving depressive symptoms in the case of depression. Lavender essential oil was the focus of clinical studies due to its positive effect on mood. An animal model of chronic administration of high-dose corticosterone to induce depression- and anxiety-like behavior and reduced neurogenesis was used to study the biological changes associated with aromatherapy. 24 adult male Sprague-Dawley rats were randomly divided into four groups. Behavioral tests were performed at the end of the 14-day treatment period. Results showed that lavender essential oil treatment improved depression-like behavior induced by chronic corticosterone administration. (Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30825591/) A review from 2019 considered human clinical studies (n=7), animal studies (n=5), in vitro studies (n=2) and previous reviews (n=6) and was able to find a found faster wound healing rate, increased expression of collagen and increased activity of proteins involved in the tissue remodeling process in wounds treated with lavender essential oil. The current literature thus clearly indicates a potential therapeutic benefit of lavender essential oil in wound healing. However, chemical composition standardization and additional high-quality human clinical trials are needed to further evaluate the safety and efficacy of lavender essential oil in clinical practice. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32589447/ An aromatherapy massage with essential lavender oil was also able to relieve the pain of those affected by knee osteoarthritis. Again, however, further studies are needed to confirm the results of this study. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27863613/ The following study shows promising antifungal (antimicrobial activity against fungal diseases) activity of lemongrass essential oil against Candida albicans, Candida tropicalis and Aspergillus niger. It concludes that lemongrass essential oil has remarkable potential for drug development for the treatment of fungal infections and skin inflammation, which should be investigated in future studies. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25242268/ Essential lemongrass oil or lemongrass oil is also used to ward off mosquitoes. The following study examined the spatial repellent effects of essential oils on the tropical yellow fever mosquito (Aedes aegypti) and on local mosquito populations in coastal British Columbia (Canada). In laboratory experiments using World Health Organization protocols, three essential oils tested were found to repel yellow fever mosquitoes: cinnamon bark, lemongrass, and rosemary. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31143941/ The effects of tangerine peel essential oil were studied on the growth of two human tumor cell lines (pulmonary adenocarcinoma A549 and hepatocarcinoma HepG2). The essential oil was obtained by cold pressing.Mandarin essential oil showed a strong dose-dependent effect on growth inhibition of said tumor cell lines. Essential oil was more potent in A549 than in HepG2 cells. It is likely that minor ingredients could have additive or synergistic effects. Therefore, tangerine essential oil could lead to the development of antitumor drugs or complementary and alternative medicines to treat various types of cancer. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22943501/ In the following study, the orange peel of 12 cultivars of Citrus sinensis from central eastern Sicily was used to obtain essential oils and extracts. One was extracted by steam distillation, the other by extraction in hexane. 54 components were identified in the vapor essential oils and 44 in the extracts. In all varieties, the main component is d-limonene (73.9-97%). The antimicrobial activity was tested against three microorganisms (Staphylococcus aureus, Listeria monocytogens and Pseudomonas aeruginosa) and confirmed for all variants of orange essential oil. Essential oils 'Sanguinello' and 'Solarino Moro' are significantly active against L. monocytogenes, while 'Valencia' hexane extract is active against all microorganisms tested. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/27535797/ The following study aimed to compare the effects of aromatherapy with lavender and orange essential oils on fatigue in dialysis patients. Ninety subjects were randomly assigned to three groups of lavender essential oil aromatherapy, orange essential oil aromatherapy, and controls. In each experimental group, subjects inhaled five drops of lavender essential oil and orange essential oil. Results: The difference in mean fatigue before and after the intervention was statistically significant in each of the experimental groups, but this difference was not significant in the control group. That is, aromatherapy with lavender essential oil and orange essential oil can reduce fatigue in hemodialysis patients. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31383445/ The following study showed that orange peel essential oil had a good dose-dependent inhibitory effect on the proliferation of HepG2 liver tumor cells and HCT116 colorectal cancer cells. When the essential oil concentration was 0.6 μl/ml or more, the viability rate of both cancer cells became lower than 13%. The Transwell assay showed that the essential oil can inhibit the migration of both cancer cells at a concentration of 0.3 μL/mL. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30704118/ In the following study, an essential oil was produced by cold-pressing orange peel followed by molecular distillation. The anticancer activities of this orange essential oil, as well as some of its main components, have been studied by MTT tests: This orange peel essential oil showed a positive effect on inhibiting the proliferation of a human lung cancer cell line A549 and prostate cancer cell line 22RV-1. Some of the oil components showed high anti-cancer potential and deserved further investigation. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28829378/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18041606/ This study provides further evidence of the impact of plant essential oil aromas on aspects of cognition and mood in healthy participants. One hundred forty-four volunteers were randomly assigned to conditions of ylang-ylang flavor, peppermint flavor, or no flavor control. Peppermint has been found to improve memory, while ylang-ylang impairs it and increases processing speed. In terms of subjective mood, peppermint increased alertness and ylang-ylang decreased it, but significantly increased calmness. These results support the contention that essential oil flavors can have significant and idiosyncratic effects on both subjective and objective evaluation of aspects of human behavior. In the following study, spearmint and peppermint (Mentha spicata/piperita) essential oils were pre-screened for neurotransmitter receptor binding and acetylcholinesterase (AChE) inhibition. In a double-blind, placebo-controlled, balanced, cross-over study, 24 participants (mean age 25.2 years) consumed single doses of an encapsulated placebo and 50 µl or 100 µl of the most promising essential oil (peppermint with nicotine/GABAA receptor binding). Psychological functioning was assessed using mood scales and a series of standardized cognitively challenging tasks before the dose and at 1, 3, and 6 hours after the dose. Results: The highest dose (100 µL) of essential oil improved performance on the cognitively challenging Rapid Visual Information Processing Task (RVIP) 1 h and 3 h after ingestion, and both doses reduced fatigue and improved performance on the Serial 3 s subtraction task 3 hours post-dose. Conclusion: Menthol/menthone-rich peppermint (Mentha piperita) essential oil improves performance on demanding cognitive tasks and attenuates the increase in mental fatigue associated with prolonged cognitive task performance in healthy adults. Future research should consider testing even higher doses. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30087294/ Rosemary essential oil is already used as a preservative in the food industry due to its antioxidant and antimicrobial activity; however, it has been shown to possess additional health benefits. The aim of the following study was to evaluate the protective effect of rosemary essential oil on carbon tetrachloride-induced liver damage in rats and to investigate whether its mechanism of action is associated with modulation of hepatic oxidation status. Rosemary essential oil at the doses of 5 mg/kg and 10 mg/kg was found to exert hepatoprotective effects by doubling the serum AST and ALT activities of rats with carbon tetrachloride-induced acute liver injury reduced. Rosemary essential oil prevented the carbon tetrachloride-induced increase in lipid peroxidation. Furthermore, pretreatment with essential oil under study for 7 days significantly reversed the activities of the antioxidant enzymes catalase, peroxidase, glutathione peroxidase and glutathione reductase in liver homogenates, particularly at a dose of 10 mg/kg. This means that these results show that, in addition to its antioxidant capacity, essential rosemary oil also develops its liver-protective effects by activating physiological defense mechanisms. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25002023/ https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32688401/ Sage is a biennial plant typical of the Mediterranean region, cultivated mainly for its essential oil, widely used in the flavor and fragrance industry and in aromatherapy for its relaxing and immune-modulating effects.In the following study, clary sage essential oil was analyzed and examined for its effects on heart rate, blood pressure and mood in healthy female and male volunteers. 32 participants, including 16 women and 18 men, inhaled the sage oil for 30 minutes (pure water as a control) . The observed decrease in pulse rate was significantly greater in women than in men (p=0.026). Tea tree oil is an essential oil that is steam distilled from the Australian native plant Melaleuca alternifolia. This essential oil has been used in Australia for almost 100 years but is now available worldwide both as a pure oil and as an active ingredient in a range of products. The oil is extracted from the leaves of the tea tree by steam distillation and has a pungent camphor odor followed by a menthol-like chill. It has a minimum content of terpinen-4-ol and a maximum content of 1,8-cineole. Terpinen-4-ol is an important component of tea tree oil that has powerful antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory properties. Tea tree oil exerts antioxidant activity and has been reported to have broad spectrum antimicrobial activity against bacterial, viral, fungal and protozoal infections affecting the skin and mucous membranes. Several studies have suggested the use of tea tree oil to treat acne vulgaris, seborrheic dermatitis, and chronic gingivitis. It also accelerates the wound healing process and exhibits anti-skin cancer activity. This review opens new horizons for dermatologists in the use of this herbal active ingredient. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22998411/ The main uses of tea tree oil in the past have benefited from the antiseptic and anti-inflammatory effects of the oil. The following review summarizes the recent developments in the antimicrobial and anti-inflammatory activities of the oil and its components and clinical efficacy: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/16418522/ For treatment of acne see also: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/25465857/ Thymol is one of the main components of the essential oil of thyme (Thymus vulgaris L., Lamiaceae), a medicinal plant with multiple therapeutic properties. This Mediterranean plant is commonly used as a culinary herb and also has a long history of being used for various medicinal purposes. Today, thymol and thyme offer a wide range of functional options in the pharmaceutical, food and cosmetics industries. The interest in formulating pharmaceuticals, nutraceuticals and cosmeceuticals based on thymol stems from several studies that have explored the potential therapeutic applications of this compound to treat respiratory, nervous and cardiovascular diseases. In addition, this compound also exhibits antimicrobial, antioxidant, anticarcinogenic, anti-inflammatory and antispasmodic activities, as well as potential as an adaptogen (immunomodulator). These bioactivities were covered in the following overview: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29785774/ Thymol (2-isopropyl-5-methylphenol) belongs to the phenolic monoterpenes and is mainly found in thyme species. It is one of the main components of thyme essential oil. Both thymol and thyme essential oil have long been used in traditional medicine as expectorant, anti-inflammatory, antiviral, antibacterial and antiseptic agents, primarily in the treatment of the upper respiratory tract. Recent studies have demonstrated its antibiofilm, antifungal, antiviral, and anticancer properties.Also, their new therapeutic formulations, such as nanocapsules containing these ingredients, may be useful in medical practice and open possibilities for their widespread use. The widespread application of thymol and thyme essential oil in healthcare shows great promise, but requires further research and analysis. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32917001/ The following study suggests that thyme oil and thymol may act as promising antibiofilm agents against drug-resistant strains of Candida species: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32008964/ The resin of the Boswellia species has always been used as an incense in religious and cultural ceremonies and in medicine. Boswellia serrata is a medium to large branched tree of the family Burseraceae (genus Boswellia) growing in arid mountain regions of India, North Africa and the Middle East. Oleo-gum resin is extracted from the incision made on the tree trunk and then stored in a custom-made bamboo basket to remove the oil content and solidify the resin. After processing, the gum resin is sorted according to taste, color, shape and size. In India, the states of Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat, Madhya Pradesh, Jharkhand and Chhattisgarh are the main source of Boswellia serrata. The oleo-gum resins contain 30-60% resin, 5-10% essential oils soluble in organic solvents and the rest is made up of polysaccharides. Gum resin extracts from Boswellia serrata have been used in folk medicine for centuries to treat various chronic inflammatory diseases. The resinous part of Boswellia serrata possesses monoterpenes, diterpenes, triterpenes, tetracyclic triterpene acids and four main pentacyclic triterpene acids, i.e. β-boswellic acid, acetyl-β-boswellic acid, 11-keto-β-boswellic acid and acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid, the are responsible for inhibiting pro-inflammatory enzymes. Of these four boswellic acids, acetyl-11-keto-β-boswellic acid is the most potent inhibitor of 5-lipoxygenase, an enzyme responsible for inflammation. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22457547/ Gum resins, obtained from trees in the Burseraceae family (Boswellia sp.), are important components of frankincense. Gum resins have been shown to possess anti-inflammatory and antineoplastic effects. Essential oil produced by distilling the gum resin traditionally used for aromatherapy has also been shown to exhibit tumor cell-specific antiproliferative and proapoptotic activities. The aim of the following study was to optimize the conditions for the production of Boswellea sacra essential oil with the highest biological activity in induction of tumor cell-specific cytotoxicity and suppression of aggressive tumor phenotypes in human breast cancer cells. Result: High molecular weight compounds including boswellic acids were more abundant in Boswellia sacra essential oil produced by hydrodistillation at 100 °C. All three human breast cancer cell lines were sensitive to essential oil treatment with reduced cell viability and increased cell death, while the immortalized normal human breast cell line was more resistant to essential oil treatment. Boswellia sacra essential oil hydrodistilled at 100°C was more potent than the essential oil prepared at 78°C in inducing cancer cell death (T47D cells). Similar to our previous observations in human bladder cancer cells, Boswellia sacra essential oil induces breast cancer cell-specific cytotoxicity.The suppression of cellular network formation and the disruption of spheroid development of breast cancer cells by Boswellia sacra essential oil suggests that the essential oil could be effective in advanced breast cancer. Future preclinical and clinical studies are urgently needed to confirm the safety and efficacy of the essential oil of To evaluate Boswellia sacra as a therapeutic agent for the treatment of breast cancer. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22171782/ Breast cancer is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Chemoresistance and toxicity are the main factors limiting treatment success in aggressive breast cancer cases. The following study examined the possible effects of frankincense, pine needle and geranium essential oils on breast cancer cell viability, proliferation, migration and invasion, and the possible mechanisms. MCF-7 breast cancer cells were treated with said essential oils and these essential oils were shown to suppress cell viability, proliferation, migration and invasion in human MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Additional data showed that frankincense, pine needle, and geranium essential oils induced apoptosis but did not affect cell cycle progression. Consistent with the in vitro activities, frankincense essential oil was effective in inhibiting tumor growth and inducing apoptosis of tumor cells in a human breast cancer mouse model. In addition, these 3 essential oils modulated the activity of the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that frankincense, pine needle, and geranium essential oils were implicated in BC cell progression possibly via the AMPK/mTOR pathway. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29115548/ Gum resins from Boswellia species, also known as frankincense, are used as a key ingredient in Ayurvedic and Chinese medicine to treat a variety of health conditions. Both chemical extracts of frankincense and essential oils made from gum resins of the Boswellia species exhibit antineoplastic activity and have been studied as potential anticancer agents. The aims of the following study are to identify optimal conditions for the production of frankincense essential oil, which possesses potent antitumor activity, and to evaluate the activity in both cultured human pancreatic cancer cells and a mouse cancer model. Result: A longer hydrodistillation time and temperature produced more high molecular weight compounds, including boswellic acids, in frankincense essential oil fractions. Human pancreatic cancer cells were sensitive to treatment with Fractions III and IV (which contain higher molecular weight compounds) with suppressed cell viability and increased cell death. All fractions of Boswellia sacra frankincense essential oil are capable of suppressing the viability of a number of human pancreatic cancer cell lines and inducing apoptosis. The efficacy of tumor cell viability suppressed by essential oil can be related to the greater abundance of high molecular weight compounds in Fractions III and IV.Although the chemical components responsible for tumor cell cytotoxicity remain undefined, essential oil produced by hydrodistillation of Boswellia sacra gum resins could be a useful alternative therapeutic agent to treat patients with pancreatic adenocarcinoma, an aggressive cancer with poor prognosis Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/23237355/ The aim of the following study was to investigate frankincense essential oil for its anti-tumor activity and signaling pathways in bladder cancer cells. Result: Frankincense oil suppressed cell viability in J82 cells of the transitional carcinoma of the bladder, but not in the healthy (UROtsa) cells. A comprehensive gene expression analysis confirmed that frankincense oil activates genes responsible for cell cycle arrest, cell growth suppression and apoptosis in J82 cells. That is, frankincense oil appears to discriminate cancer cells from normal bladder cells and suppress cancer cell viability. Frankincense oil could therefore represent an alternative means to be used inside the urinary bladder to treat bladder cancer. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/19296830/ The following study examines the effects of frankincense essential oil and its main components, limonene and α-pinene, on sleep and stress. The effects on plasma levels of corticosterone and glutathione (GSH) and on sleeping and waking behavior were studied in sleep-deprived rats. The frankincense essential oil, after dilution in jojoba oil, was applied to the skin as a vehicle, i.e. topically applied. Frankincense essential oil at a dilution of 1/1000 significantly (p<0.05) reduced corticosterone levels and resulted in a significant decrease in plasma glutathione levels. Concentrations of products of the oxidative metabolites were reduced by the incense. In sleep-deprived rats, frankincense oil enhanced sleep without rapid eye movements. An improvement in sleep and reduction of stress with frankincense essential oil is suggested by this study. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31582666/ Ylang-ylang (Cananga odorata) is traditionally used to treat malaria, stomach problems, asthma, gout and rheumatism. Many phytochemical studies have now identified the components found in ylang ylang essential oils, including monoterpenes, sesquiterpenes, and phenylpropanoids. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/26294929/ Another study (https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/18041606/) provides further evidence of the influence of essential plant oil aromas on aspects of cognition and mood in healthy individuals Participants: One hundred and forty-four volunteers were randomly assigned to conditions of ylang-ylang flavor, peppermint flavor, or no flavor control. Cognitive performance was assessed using the Cognitive Drug Research computerized rating battery, with mood scales completed before and after the cognitive test. Peppermint has been found to improve memory. In terms of subjective mood, peppermint increased alertness and ylang-ylang decreased it, but significantly increased calm. These results support the contention that essential oil flavors can have significant and idiosyncratic effects on both subjective and objective evaluation of aspects of human behavior. The following study investigated the biochemical mechanism of action of the calming effects of ylang ylang essential oil in mice: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29545208/ - finding that ylang ylang essential oil reduced phosphorylation of ERK1/2 in both PFC and hippocampus, downregulations of phosphorus-CREB (p<0.05) and c-Fos (p<0, 05) were only observed in the hippocampus. The essential oil also affected serotonin metabolism in the brain and lowered plasma corticosterone levels in the mice treated with m-CPP. Candida albicans can form biofilms of yeast, hyphal, and pseudohyphal elements. The following study describes the chemical composition, antibiofilm, and antihyphal activities of cedar essential oil, which has remarkable antibiofilm activity against Candida albicans but does not affect planktonic cell growth. Nineteen components have been identified in cedar essential oil, of which phenols were the major constituents. Of these, camphor, fenchone, fenchyl alcohol, α-thujone and borneol significantly reduced Candida albicans biofilm formation. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/28824600/ The anti-Helicobacter pylori properties of 26 different commercial essential oils were examined in vitro in the following study. Nine essential oils with different anti-Helicobacter activities were selected and phytochemical analyzes of the selected essential oils were carried out using the GC-MS method. The phenol red method was used to screen the effect of essential oils on urease activity. The most active essential oils were thyme, lemongrass, cedarwood, and lemon balm oils. The most active was cedarwood oil. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32013183/ Breast cancer is associated with high morbidity and mortality. Chemoresistance and toxicity are the main factors limiting treatment success in aggressive breast cancer cases. The following study examined the possible effects of frankincense, pine needle and geranium essential oils on breast cancer cell viability, proliferation, migration and invasion, and the possible mechanisms. MCF-7 breast cancer cells were treated with said essential oils and these essential oils were shown to suppress cell viability, proliferation, migration and invasion in human MCF-7 breast cancer cells. Additional data showed that frankincense, pine needle, and geranium essential oils induced apoptosis but did not affect cell cycle progression. Consistent with the in vitro activities, frankincense essential oil was effective in inhibiting tumor growth and inducing apoptosis of tumor cells in a human breast cancer mouse model. In addition, these 3 essential oils modulated the activity of the AMPK/mTOR signaling pathway. In conclusion, the present study demonstrates that frankincense, pine needle, and geranium essential oils were implicated in BC cell progression possibly via the AMPK/mTOR pathway. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29115548/ The following study determined the chemical composition of pine needle (Cedrus deodara) essential oil and evaluated its antioxidant and antimicrobial activity. 23 components representing 95.79% of the oil were identified. The main components include α-terpineol (30.2%), linalool (24.47%), limonene (17.01%), anethole (14.57%), caryophyllene (3.14%) and eugenol (2, 14%). Pine needle essential oil exhibits remarkable antioxidant activity in free radical scavenging and lipid peroxidation. In addition, the essential oil showed strong antimicrobial activity against typical foodborne microorganisms. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/22757704/ The following study examined the anticancer activity of pine needle (Pinus roxburghii) essential oil and found cytotoxicity induction in colon, leukemia, multiple myeloma, pancreas, head, neck and lung cancer cells exposed to this essential oil The essential oil-induced apoptosis was confirmed by the cleavage of PARP and caspase-3, which suppressed the colony-forming ability of tumor cells, and 50% inhibition occurred at a dose of 25 μg/ml. In addition, essential oil inhibited the activation of the inflammatory transcription factor NF-κB and the expression of NF-κB-regulated gene products associated with cell survival (Survivin, c-FLIP, Bcl-2, Bcl-xL, c-Myc, c -IAP2 ), proliferation (cyclin D1) and metastasis (MMP-9). The study concludes that pine needle essential oil possesses significant anticancer activity and could be used as an anticancer agent, requiring further investigation to identify the bioactive compounds followed by in vivo studies. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/29743861/ The following study examines the effect of pine needle oil in the therapy of Alzheimer's / dementia. The most common neurodegenerative disease is Alzheimer's dementia. It is determined by the deposits of amyloid beta peptide, which leads to memory impairment, oxidative stress and neurodegeneration. Aromatherapy with essential oils could be a natural treatment option for Alzheimer's dementia. Therefore, this study aimed to identify the neuroprotective and central nervous system beneficial effects of pine needle (Pinus halepensis) essential oil in a rat model of acute amyloid beta toxicity. The results suggest that Pinus halepensis pine needle essential oil has beneficial central nervous system and neuroprotective effects and can be considered as a therapeutic tool for attenuating Aβ toxicity and neuronal dysfunction. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/30784941/ In the following article, the anti-tumor activity of Korean pine (Pinus koraiensis) pine needle essential oil on metastatic gastric cancer cells (MGC-803 cell strain) and its mechanism were investigated. Anti-tumor experiments in vitro showed that the oil could significantly inhibit the proliferation and migration of MGC-803 cells and also arrest cell cycle in G2/M phase, reduce mitochondrial membrane potential and induce apoptosis. The results showed that Korean pine essential oil can exert anti-tumor activity via HIPPO/YAP signaling pathway. The anti-tumor mechanism of this oil deserves further study. Source: https://pubmed.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/31731517/ COVID-19 has been declared the world's deadliest public health emergency in modern history. The angiotensin converting enzyme 2 (ACE2) receptor, a host cell receptor, has been found to play a critical role in viral cell entry. Therefore, ACE2 blockers can be a potential target for antiviral intervention. The following study examined the ACE2 inhibitory effects of 10 essential oils. Among them, geranium and lemon oils showed significant ACE2 inhibitory effects in epithelial cells. In addition, immunoblotting and qPCR analyzes also confirmed that geranium and lemon oil have a strong ACE2 inhibitory effect. The results suggest that geranium and lemon essential oils and their derived compounds are valuable natural antiviral agents that can help prevent SARS-CoV-2/COVID-19 from entering the human body.Source: https://pubmedncbi.nlm.nih.gov/32575476/Current studies on the individual essential oils
Bergamot
Citronella
Eucalyptus Oil
Geranium
Immortelle & Lavender
Lavender
Lemongrass
Tangerine
Orange
Peppermint
Rosemary
Sage
Tea tree oil
Thyme
Incense
Ylang Ylang
cedar
Swiss pine
Lemon
